Africa remains one of the world’s leastdeveloped regions, recording poor performance on several human development indicators. One major contributing factor is its extremely low per capita energy consumption, which remains among the lowest globally. In 2024, Africa’s per capita energy consumption was only about 19 per cent of the global average and less than 9 per cent of that of OECD countries (EI, 2025).

Abstract: The Marrakesh Agreement establishing the World Trade Organization (WTO) identifies the social, economic, and environmental dimensions of sustainable development in its preamble. The WTO agreements have addressed environmental concerns primarily through exceptions.